three nations seek universal service through competitive marketplaces, but they guarantee free expression differently: hands-off policies in the US, top-down approaches in Germany, and bottom-up approaches in Japan. The local political, social, and legal atmosphere determines each nation's policies. However, all approaches betray unanticipated consequences that weaken their policies. Public interest in the two areas cannot be realized without sacrificing the viability of telecommunications deregulation, and universal service and the maintenance of free speech require government action.

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